The Free Will in Meditations on First Philosophy by...

The Free Will in Meditations on First Philosophy by Descartes I In Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes takes the reader through a methodological exercise in philosophical enquiry. After stripping the intellect of all doubtful and false beliefs, he re-examines the nature and structure of being in an attempt to secure a universally valid epistemology free from skepticism. Hoping for the successful reconciliation of science and theology, Descartes works to reconstruct a new foundation of absolute and certain truth to act as a catalyst for future scientific research by â€Å"showing that a mathematical [rational-objective] physics of the world is attainable by creatures with our intellectual capacities and faculties† (Shand 1994, p.†¦show more content†¦II The will, at its most basic, consists in saying â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no† to ideas or propositions. Descartes adopts the position that the free will is independent of the deterministic and fundamental laws that govern matter. Human behavior is neither dictated by mechanical compulsion, nor persuaded or coerced by God, nor influenced by any external force to act in a predetermined manner. Descartes, in a bold stroke, proclaims the divine grace of God along with natural knowledge actually increases and strengthens human freedom, as opposed to restricting its effectiveness. As a thinking entity, Descartes is a consciousness mind aware of the potential to engage in various modes of existence. To the numerous operations of â€Å"thought† he includes doubting, understanding, affirming, denying, willing, refusing, imagining, and sensing. As varied and manifold as these operations appear, they are but expressions of two principal types of conscious activity, to which Descartes eventually traces the nature of error. Thinking and reasoning, together with all belief in general, depend upon the operation of the twin faculties â€Å"knowing† and â€Å"choosing,† or the free will. Garrett Thompson writes: Descartes divides all thoughts into two kinds: ideasShow MoreRelatedDescartes : The Father Of Modern Philosophy1055 Words   |  5 Pagesthe fact that I am something.† (Descartes, â€Å"Meditations on First Philosophy,† 182) Rene Descartes is widely considered the father of modern philosophy. He created many new ideas about the self, which is something that has been contested since the dawn of philosophy. Even now, the world is nowhere near a unified thought on the soul. Descartes is most famous for addressing this, and is often summarized by the famous â€Å"Cogito Ergo Sum (I think, therefore I am)†Descartes offers a great deal of importantRead MoreThe Matrix Is A Clear Demonstration Of Descartes Meditation One855 Words   |  4 PagesMatrix† is a clear demonstration of Descartes Meditation One, they both question the reality in which they are living, and rather or not if it is real or if it is controlled by something else, questioning the current reality. For Descartes, it is controlled by evil demons, whereas a supercomputer controls the Matrix. Both are in what is perceived as a dream state where the senses cannot be trusted. Descartes works up to his case for universal doubt in Meditation One questioning our ordinary relianceRead MoreDescartes Six Meditations on First Philosophy Essay1347 Words   |  6 PagesThroughout the six meditations on First Philosophy, French philosopher Rene Descartes seeks to find a concrete foundation for the basis of science, one which he states can only include certain and unquestionable beliefs. Anything less concrete, he argues will be exposed to the external world and to opposition by philosophical sceptics. The sense of the Cartesian reform is the imposition of a new method of thinking. Descartes’ method to begin with is reductive, removing all knowledge acquired withoutRead More Weaknesses of Descartes Arguments Essays1641 Words   |  7 PagesDescartes was incorrect and made mistakes in his philosophical analysis concerning understanding the Soul and the foundation of knowledge.   Yes, he coined the famous phrase, â€Å"I think therefore I am,† but the rest of his philosophical conclusions fail to be as solid (Meditation 4; 32). Descartes knew that if he has a mind and is thinking thoughts then he must be something that has the ability to think. While he did prove that he is a thinking thing that thinks (Meditation 3; 28), he was unable toRead MoreDescartes Belief in God Essay1503 Words   |  7 PagesDescartes and God In his groundbreaking work, Meditations on First Philosophy, the French philosopher Rene Descartes lays the groundwork for many philosophical principles by attempting to â€Å"establish a bold and lasting knowledge† (171)1. The foundations for knowledge Descartes established would go on to influence a plethora of other philosophers and philosophical works. Descartes argues in his meditations first from the point of view of complete skepticism, using skepticism as a tool in order toRead MoreResponse Paper of Meditation Four, Five, and Six774 Words   |  4 PagesBo Guo Dr. Eric Morton PHIL 2010-200 7 July 2013 Response Paper of Meditation Four, Five, and Six Descartes talked about the true and the false, and how we make mistakes in Meditation Four. Descartes believed that error as such is not something real that depends upon God, but rather is merely a defect. And thus there is no need to account for my errors by positing a faculty given to me by God for this purpose(546). He thought that the reason why we make mistakes is that the faculty ofRead MoreDescartes’ Cogito Argument Successfully Shows the Evil Demon Argument is Unsound888 Words   |  4 PagesDoes Descartes’ Cogito argument successfully show that the Evil Demon Argument is unsound? In this essay I will attempt to show that the philosopher, Renà ¨ Descartes’ Cogito Argument successfully proves the Evil Demon Argument to be unsound. By an analysis of the structure of the arguments and what they prove, I will show the evil demon argument to be unsound. An argument is unsound when the premises as false and the argument is invalid. This analysis of both structure and content will eventuateRead MoreDescartes Meditations On First Philosophy1318 Words   |  6 PagesPhilosophical Questions November 2, 2017 Cogito Ergo Sum Descartes Meditations on First Philosophy and his questioning of our existence in reality is a question which philosophers have tackled throughout time. Cogito ergo sum or I think therefore I am, a phrase brought about by Descartes is the backbone of his whole philosophy of our existence in reality. As long as we are thinking things, we exist. When we look at this approach to our existence we must first deny that any sensory data that we receive is believableRead MoreIn Philosophy, There Are Going To Be Some Agreements And1393 Words   |  6 PagesIn philosophy, there are going to be some agreements and disagreements among philosopher’s, but the most compelling of them all is Descartes’ and Spinoza’s take in regards to mind and body, and God and free will, God existence. I will compare and contrast Descartes’ and Spinoza’s perspectives on the relationship between mind and body, and God and free will. Maria, there is no fast way to explain all of th is as this takes time, so please brace yourself as I hope to provide you with a better understandingRead MoreEssay on Descartes Meditations1153 Words   |  5 PagesDescartes Meditations The way Descartes chose to write this piece literature captivated me. Descartes was a very intelligent man who wanted to make sense of the world he lived in. The format he used was unusual. It seems to me that he may have used this format, which is a replication of the book of Genesis in the Bible, to have a deeper and more profound impact on the reader. There are many similarities between Descartes Meditations and the first book of the Bible, Genesis. For

Power of Classical and Scriptural Witches Essay - 1309 Words

1 Mà ³nica Rodrà ­guez Pà ©rez 801-09-6274 To what extent does the Classical Tradition agree with the Scriptural Tradition on the powers witches can wield? The two biggest differences we have from the Classical witch and the Christian Ideal featured in their sacred texts, is definitely the connotation that either receives and, the powers they may or may not have. In the first, witches aren’t seen in a negative light; just as they are in the later doctrine (the word Witch was created by the Christian Faith later on.) Before, they were known as oracles, and in some cases, as humans gifted by pagan deities, or the deities themselves (the case with some†¦show more content†¦being covetous, incestuous, lascivious, vengeful, choleric and many more). During the time of the Inquisition, the term witchcraft gained a new meaning. It didn’t only limit itself to prescribing certain acts of earlier pagan religions as not virtuous, but to be an act of Devil worship. An example of the kinds of negative consequences th at would result of consulting witchcraft is the story of King Saul and the Witch of Endor in the book of Samuel 1.He is the first king, appointed by the prophet Samuel. He has a couple of shining moments when he defeats the Ammonites. He commits his first big mistake not soon after, he spares the Amalekites who are sworn enemies of the Jewish people, as per dictated by God. After he spared the Amalekites, he is tormented by the Lord’s unresponsiveness to his pleas. He is full of doubts, concerning his upcoming battle with the Philistines and their leader, David. When his doubts are not appeased via prophet, a dream and such, he decides to go to this woman, who is also called â€Å"familiar withShow MoreRelatedWho Goes with Fergus11452 Words   |  46 Pagespresence (â€Å"a flame that cannot singe a sleeve†). The narrative and imagistic arrangement of this poem is highly ambiguous and complicated; it is unclear whether Yeats intends the poem to be a register of symbo ls or an actual mythological statement. (In classical mythology, dolphins often carry the dead to their final resting-place.) In any event, we see here the same preference for the artificial above the actual that appeared in â€Å"Sailing to Byzantium†; only now the speaker has encountered actual creatures

Berlin Blockade free essay sample

Each place had a 90 second interval to land and deliver food, looting, oil and building materials, this was extremely difficult as the corridor was full of soviet planes yet by September, 4600 tones was being flown into West Berlin. Therefore the blockade was a failure for the USSR as they failed to keep the West out and ended up giving in as the West were persistent in not withdrawing and showing how strong capitalism was as a whole. One cause of the Berlin Blockade is that the cold war was worsening because of events such as the Prague Coup, Conform and the Truman Doctrine. The Prague Coup was a time in which the Communists took over Czechoslovakia hat would start the process of introducing the Marshall Plan and the policy of containment as the East had been allowed to take over and spread the communism sphere of influence. After the Truman Doctrine had been created, Conform was created by the Soviets in response to it and focused mainly on politics as politicians were linked to the Soviets and they had to do what Stalin wanted. This therefore was the start of Blockade as it was starting to show how opposite they were and what they had in mind for Europe was completely clashing with each others ideas.Another cause was the Aims for Germany as this was one of the most significant examples of disagreement between the West and East. The aims for Germany were first discussed at the Yalta conference in Feb./March 1945 and also at the Potsdam conference in July/August 1 945 and whereas Stalin wanted Germany to stay weak and divided so that this meant there was no threat to the USSR, the West (made up of Britain, France and the USA) wanted Germany to be prosperous again.This was because they were giving them money and food therefore damaging their economy but also because a wealthier and therefore stronger Germany loud mean that it could become the Wests first line of defense against the USSR. This signified that they wanted to speed up economic recovery of Germany. This was a cause of the Berlin Blockade because it was breaking both Yalta and Potsdam agreements as the West got scared and the East were pushing boundaries. Similarly to this, Begonia is also considered a cause of the Blockade as this was also going against the agreements of both conferences.Begonia was the unification of Britain and the Aquas zones in Germany. This made the rebuilding Of Germany easier and therefore made Germany stronger for any future attacks. This would have been a problem for the East and West because it scared Stalin as he believed it was a threat to attack. Therefore this was yet another problem that had aroused between the capitalists and communists as it was seen as tactic to rebuild Germany stronger than before putting everyone at risk if there was an attack. Another cause of the Blockade was investment in West Germany as this may have looked to Stalin as a chance of strengthening the economy and military as possibly a threat to the East. There were a number of things that made the investment more significant such as the Marshall Plan/Marshals Aid. Marshall Aid was to do with the containment of communism by helping all countries in Europe who wished for economic assistance including West Berlin. This was a tactic by the West to try and stop the countries struggling from turning to communism henceforth increasing Stalins communist sphere of influence across Europe.This would have made the West to look weaker than they actually were if the policy of containment hadnt been successful. Finally the last cause of the Berlin Blockade was the New Currency situation that occurred in the winter of 1947-48. There was a discussion on the introduction of a new currency between the East and West yet Stalin was completely opposed to the idea. Interestingly, the West went against Stalins feelings and introduced a new currency called the Deutsche. They didnt however; introduce the currency in West Berlin.The East, in retaliation, also introduced their own currency but also introduced it in East Berlin. This then led to the introduction of the Deutsche in West Berlin. This therefore suggested that now they were competing with each other for power and there now was a gig point of tension across the whole of Europe. These factors all led to the Berlin blockade because as a result of these, when the main autobahn was closed for repairs, the USSR stopped all rail traffic between the West and Berlin.It also suggested a build-up of tension and anger between the two sides that had been less noticeably present for quite some time yet had never been addressed before. The main reason for the Berlin blockade was Begonia and was a bigger reason that the cold war worsening, aims for Germany and new currency/investment in West Germany because this now meant that are owe two super sectors and meant that West Germany had a Western influence.This would anger Stalin because he might think that Germany is becoming stronger and being built back up by the West and prove a bigger threat to him. The Berlin Blockade was the first time that the former allies had ever come close to fighting each other and therefore the consequences of the airlift/blockade were enormous and damaging for any relationship the CSS and USSR had. One consequence of the blockade was the Arms Race as this showed significant fear and tension between Stalin and Truman.In 1 945, America developed the A-Bomb without the Soviets being informed, then in 1949, the Soviets had successfully managed to develop the A-Bomb; this happened 3-4 years earlier than expected by the Americans. This meant that both sides feared each other as they felt they were in danger and began to rapidly build up their armies and weapons in the 1 asss American doubled its air force and increased army to 3. 5 million men. As the arms race continued to develop as a fast pace, the H-Bomb was developed by the USA in 1952 and by 1 953 so had the Soviets. This again was much quicker than expected and showed the development within the USSR technology. Overall by the sasss both had the H-Bomb which could wipe out an entire city, 852 bombers (Americans) could com platelet destroy Moscow and if the Russians attacked America, roughly 20 million would die. A significant development In the Arms Race was when in 1957, the USSR developed Spics before America.This therefore showed that Arms Race had become increasingly competitive after the Berlin Blockade. Another consequence linked to the Arms Race was the development of NATO and the Warsaw Pact as this also showed increasing fear and distrust between the two sides. The North Atlantic Treaty Association (NATO) was an organization set up by the West to protect against the USSR. Originally 1 2 western states signed the pact and agreed that they would support the other if one was attacked.A major problem with NATO was that it only had 14 army divisions whereas the USSR and its allies had 173. The USSR condemned NATO by claiming that the west was preparing for war and then when West Germany were allowed to join, Stalin created the Warsaw Pact in 1955 as retaliation to NATO. All Eastern European countries mined except Yugoslavia and similarly to the terms in NATO, they would protect each other if they were attacked. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact were military alliances and based on collective security.This therefore showed that neither side actually trusted each other even though they used to be legalities a few years before, it showed the differences between them and highlighted how little they actually had in common in terms of working together. Also there is the fact that East and West German were created in 1949. May 1949 was the time when the western allies brought their zones gather to form the State Of West Germany commonly known as the FROG the Federal Republic of Germany.This then resulted in the eastern allies also bringing their zones together to form the state of East Germany officially known as the GIRD German democratic republic. Additionally to this, Berlin was also more divided than it used to be and therefore much like when West Germany was created by the western allies, West Berlin was created by Britain, America and France. To compete with this change in the West, the East Berliners were encouraged to start thinking of themselves as a part of East Germany by the USSR.This therefore suggests that there was a competition for power and control within Europe be;en the two of them and also it showed that all agreements in the past regarding Germany were off and that it was a case of trying to build up their individual empires. This can be linked to the Berlin wall because when Khr ushchev came into power, he saw that the GIRD, even though they remained loyal to the USSR, were fragile and struggling and were therefore often faced with a prosperous FROG and as a result of this, millions were fleeing over the border to have a happier fife within the ERG.

Model of the social contract

Socrates and the Third Argument on Social Contract In the argument on social contract, Plato presents a model of the social contract that ties the citizen to the law. However, we ought to take care when comparing the Socratic social contract concept with the modern concept of the social contract as perceived by Hobbes and Rousseau. In Rousseau’s concept, the state is an absolute outcome of the common will of the citizens.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Model of the social contract specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As such, the social contract is an arrangement among citizens to exist collectively under set laws. Plato, on the other hand, believes that the contract is between a specific native of the state and the law. Plato views the law as an actual entity while Rousseau sees it as an abstract construction designed for the people by the people. Plato’s representation of the state (law) a s an entity is creativity that generates an imagination of the meaning that Socrates conveys. The representation is meant to elicit a favorable mood for ethical contemplation. In this contract, the citizen pledges to submit to the law and to stand by the determinations of its courts. This is intended to maintain order and peace in the state. However, in portraying the law as directives that have to be observed, Plato shows the law as authoritarian. Plato’s theory, which equates the law to parents in a status of great authority, depicts them as dictators. Though the law can be coaxed into change, the citizens are meant to obey the law at all times. Socrates’ social contract argument implies that if one enjoys the advantages of citizenship, then he vows to obey the law of the state. A problem arises when a noncitizen breaks the law. Applying the principles of Plato’s theory becomes complicated as the person is not bound by the contract. The First Cause Developed b y Saint Thomas Aquinas, the first cause argument is based on the principle of sufficient reason, which we use each day in science and normal thinking processes. When we encounter something new we naturally try to establish its cause. If it appears that there is no physical cause, we often consider a psychological cause and ultimately resort to a supernatural explanation. Eventually, we discover that the world is made up of a chain of causes with one cause linked to the next.Advertising Looking for critical writing on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Human existence, for example, can be traced back to billions of causes all the way from the big bang theory to the progression of the protein molecule. The main concern here is the cause of the universe in its entirety and not the causes of its components. There is a cause that precedes all the causes. To deny such a cause means a retreat down the chain of causes including the denial of the doubter’s own existence. If we stick to the chain of causes and concede that indeed an uncaused cause exists, then there is a perpetual and necessary being who is the supreme cause. According to Aquinas, that uncaused necessary being can only be God. Some philosophers refute this argument on the basis of contradiction. They argue that the first premise implies causality in everything that exists, but the conclusion infers that there is something uncaused (God). To avoid such contradiction, the first premise can be changed to say that everything in motion has a cause or everything contingent has a cause. God is neither in motion nor contingent. A Sound Argument for the Existence of God: Argument to Design This is a teleological argument for the existence of God. According to this argument, the design (order) that exists in the world is proof for the presence of a gifted designer. This designer is in most cases identified as God. One of the classic proponents of this school is William Paley. Paley likens the intricacy of living things to the subordinate intricacy possessed by a watch, which we know is designed by a gifted being. According to Paley, living things cannot be without a maker in the same way a watch cannot exist minus a watchmaker. The argument from design asserts that the universe is specially designed for human occupancy. It also states that there are various ways in which the universe could have existed such as having altered laws of physics from the ones we know. The universe could have possessed a different planetary arrangement or even began with a bigger or smaller ‘big bang’ than it did. It could have occurred in a way that could not support life. The fact that the universe exists the way it does enables its inhabitation. The precision in design of the universe is a sign of a master planner at work.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on Model of the social contract s pecifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The design argument is of extensive and persistent appeal. Theists appreciate that order and beauty are works of deliberate and intelligent design. Arguments supporting design are made to defend this notion and convince the atheists that it is the most reasonable argument for the existence of a supreme being. Though these arguments exist in various forms, their underlying principle is that the order we see is deliberately caused by an intelligent designer. Cartesian Dualism Dualism is the perspective on the body-mind problem, which proposes that the mental and the physical are real and distinct. In her correspondence to Descartes, Elisabeth of Bohemia sought clarification on how the material extended nature of the body could interact with the immaterial and (un-extended) mind. Descartes proposed a mechanistic interpretation of the material. He argued that though the body and mind are distinct, they stil l interact. Elisabeth wanted to know the exact nature of the interaction between the extended body and the un-extended mind. Since the immaterial mind is not extended, it cannot have direct interaction with the body. Descartes asserts that the place where this interaction takes place is the pineal gland (‘the seat of the soul’) in the human brain. In his view, this is the only component of the body that is not a duplicate. Descartes postulates that the brain collects neural signals from different body regions, which it sends to the mind. For instance, a signal of pain felt in the stomach is sent to the brain. It is imperative to note that (in the Cartesian view) the brain and the mind are not synonymous. Part of the duty of the brain (specifically the pineal gland) is to link the body to the mind. However, due to its physical extended nature the brain is not the mind. Unlike the body that is physical and reducible, the mind cannot be reduced.Advertising Looking for critical writing on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Cartesian view remains the most appropriate response to the dualistic nature of the body-mind problem since it makes a deliberate attempt to link the body and mind. Though Descartes recognizes the independent nature of the body and the mind, he still sees the need for their interaction as they both belong to the same individual. Emergent Materialism In evolutionary theory, emergent materialism is the growth of a system that cannot be projected or justified from antecedent forms. Generally, materialists refute the existence of the mind as a unit superior to physical existence. They maintain that feelings, impressions and ideas are produced by processes in the physical brain. Emergent materialism is a physically inclined theory that proclaims the mind as an irreducible element. The theory asserts that the study of mental occurrences is not dependent upon other sciences. In agreement with other varieties of non-reductive physicalism, emergent materialism is criticized for attemptin g to ‘have its cake and eat it.’ According to this view, there is an actual distinction between a conscious (rational) human and a simply physical or purely biological entity. To emergent materialists, a purely biological or physical account of human nature is a blind undertaking. Despite the fact that human beings are constituted of purely physical and biological components, reflection and deliberate activity make up new forms of composition of these physical constituents. This is done in accordance to a new and definite level of laws. In brief, human beings are not merely physical or biological objects as their mental processes are governed by psychological principles. An emergent property is dependent upon some fundamental properties of the object, and it can have no independent existence away from the object. However, the emergent proponents postulate a degree of independence in a way that the new forms are not reducible to their antecedents. This linkage between bo dy and mind makes emergent materialism the most applicable school of physicalism. This critical writing on Model of the social contract was written and submitted by user Madison Sargent to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.